Antenna Calculators:Radio frequency (RF) is the oscillation rate of an alternating electric current or voltage or of a magnetic, electric or electromagnetic field or mechanical system in the frequency range from around 20 kHz to around 300 GHz. Is all that stitching shown in figure really necessary from an RF point of view? Probably not. The flexible types (9913F and LMR-400UF) are preferred, particularly for rotatable antennas. Łucja Zaborowska, MD, PhD candidate. The R f value is a physical constant for organic molecules. It include antenna gain calculator, Antenna G/T ratio calculator, coaxial cable Impedance calculator, Noise temperature to Noise Figure Converter, Radar Range Calculator, resonant frequency calculator, wavelength to frequency calculator, receiver C/N ratio,. 2. Calculating RF Wavelengths. Note: If you select a waveguide size from the dropdown below, the broad wall width will be automatically calculated. RF EMR is non-ionising radiation, meaning that it has insufficient energy to break chemical bonds or remove electrons (ionisation). 2. To calculate the resonant frequency of a circuit composed of an inductor and a capacitor, follow these steps: Write down the capacitance C in farads. 5 Fresnel Zones. 3. Choose a calculation to use the wavelength equation λ = v/f to. A few basic facts about waveguide: Here are Waveguide Equations & Fields. Free Space Wavelength. 6. The length of the dipole is usually one-half of the wavelength of the RF signals. A tool designed to calculate skin depth based on the conductive material being used and the frequency of the signal. Everything RF. 6 mm. 7 mA 19. 1. So, for example, for a frequency of 433 MHz, the approximate 1/4 wavelength would be around 173. e. 3 x 102 m (230 m) 3. All are in Adobe PDF file format. Noise Temperature to Noise Figure Converter. 74 to. These files are fairly large, some over 1 meg. MHz. This is a required field. A television station broadcast Radio Frequency (RF) channel is allocated 6 MHz of bandwidth for over-the-air transmission in part of the VHF or UHF Radio Frequency Band. Where:A waveguide is a hollow metallic structure used to transfer high-frequency electromagnetic waves (usually in the microwave range) from one place to another. The Photon Wavelength Energy calculator computes radiant energy in the Planck-Einstein relationship (E = h•ν) based on Planck's constant (h), the speed of light (c) and the wavelength of radiation (λ). $\begingroup$ Its got nothing to do with whether the cage is grounded. At 870 MHz, λ is 345 mm; The rule of thumb for hole dimension is λ / 20 = 17 mm. 99792458 * 10 8 meters/second. - Pi Attenuator Calculator. Frequency to Wavelength. This is related to the question how can electromagnetic waves reach a cell phone in faraday cage?, where in the answer it was stated that the holes (=size of the mesh) would need to be smaller than that of the wavelengths of the EM radiation used for cell phone signals for attenuation to 'start'. Yes, you can calculate the wavelength of a dipole. The frequency is expressed in Hertz (Hz). Pasternack's RF Calculators and Conversions section provides engineers valuable and easy-to-use tools ranging from complex mathematical formulas to simple conversions. **Note: All of our calculators allow SI prefix input. 5 = 0. Conversion Tables. This term is used in technical disciplines such as radar. These are the frequencies at. Time Delay. μr (relative permeability)Quarter Wave Transformer Impedance Calculator. 3. RF Calculator for Calculation / Conversion of Common RF Terms RF calculators and converters. Sometimes the RF link includes the antenna and sometimes it does not, this will be clear from the context, but usually it includes the antennas. This calculator clears up that confusion to make the conversion between wavelength and frequency easy. Depending on the operating frequencies and power levels, the dimension of the aperture should be smaller than 50and not greater. The default primary frequency is that of alternating current ( AC ), 60 hertz (hz). If you have no particular preference within a given ham radio band, then simply enter its center frequency (i. d is the diameter of the inner conductor of the coax cable; units of D and d must be the same,. 8dB. Following table provides links to useful Wireless converters and calculators. The Frequency from Wavelength calculator computes the RF frequency (ν) based on the wavelength (λ) and the speed of light (c). There are many propagation modes in a circular waveguide, the main mode is TE11 mode, and its single-mode operating area is 2. = v2πf. Radiation: • Electromagnetic wave (wavelength, frequency, period) • Propagation delay (distance vs. A Velocity Factor can be applied if you are working with coaxial cables. 946 for silver, or 1. Example: Calculate the effective antenna aperture of the Russian RT-70 radio telescope in Crimea (Russia): its antenna gain is 69. where h is the Planck's constant: h = 6. 7, 494, and 983. Examples of TEM: Free space, Coax, Stripline, Waveguide. Power to Voltage. The gain of the pyramidal horn antenna gain can be calculated by the following formula. 50 inches, WR90 is 0. μr (relative permeability) Quarter Wave Transformer Impedance Calculator. Noise Factor to Noise Figure Calculator. 65. Following table provides links to useful Wireless converters and calculators. Believe it or not, conductors can become thinner at higher frequencies with little impact on circuit loss, because the skin depth shrinks with frequency. The pulse repetition frequency (PRF) is the measure of the number of pulses per second of a repeating signal. © All Rights Reserved. 99792458 * 10 8 meters/second. 361564_P_17Y. The impedance of that middle section can actually look very reactive as the length of the spacing between the grounding vias exceeds 1/8th of a wavelength. Following RF Wavelength formula or equation is used in this RF Wavelength calculator. At the receptor, I'm using coil loaded antenna with 1/4 of wavelength, the same of the picture, tomorrow I will try a straight rigid wire of 1/2 of wavelength. Verify the result with our sound wavelength calculator. Microstrip Impedance Calculator Enter the Height, Width and Permittivity to get the Impedance of the Microstrip Note : The unit of the height and width entered must be the same. A single wavelength at this range is on the order of miles long. , electromagnetically "short" antennas), the far and near regional boundaries are measured in terms of a simple ratio of the distance r from the radiating source to the wavelength λ of the radiation. Also here is a second formula for calculating a half wavelenght in inches. Although the sheet resistance of metalization always increases with frequency, the RF loss per wavelength can actually decrease. The Velocity Factor (VF) of my 300 ohm twinlead is 0. 4 *. Thickness: Thickness of the stripline conductor. If you find the wavelength for the given frequency, then just find the type of antenna (quarter-wave), take the appropriate fraction of the wavelength, and convert said quantity to the appropriate units. Enter F and F (GHz) Metric (millimeters) English (inches) Advertisement. A microstrip width calculator can calculate the width of a microstrip. The Line of Sight calculator will determine both the "line of sight distance" and "radio horizon / service range" of an antenna placed at a specific height above the ground, represented by "antenna height (h)" in this equation. 2023 Microwaves101. The following formula is used to calculate the power value (in W) for a given dBm value. This is an theoretical approach to the calculation and can be used to make rough. GHz. Here you can see that the total length of cable being used is 19. [1] [2] [3] In other words, it is the length of the conductor measured in wavelengths. PCB trace length matching is crucial for high frequency synchronous signals. This calculator will help you calculate the guided wavelength, provided the dimensions of the microstrip are given as well as the velocity of propagation, the microstrip material's dielectric constant, and the input frequency. How do you convert period to frequency? According to the formula of frequency: F (frequency) = 1 / T (period). The coax cable is a means for transferring your RF signal to the radiating portion of the radio system. Though the calculation is done using the RF calculators. Their low profile design, often square or rectangular, allows them to be mounted to flat surfaces. Dipole antenna calculatorFm 23-10 chptr 7 communications 5/8 wave 2kw vertical high gain fm broadcasting antennaAntenna length wavelength. e. The following table provides conversions for wavelength (from frequency), VSWR (from forward and reflected power) and various other useful conversions. RF Calculator This general RF calculator provides path loss, VSWR and wavelength as well as conversions between many common measurements used in the wireless. Noise Temperature to Noise Figure Converter. Zp= Input/Primary impedance. This blog post provides the formulas and an Excel spreadsheet. 185, you wish to calculate and then select the. RF calculations and RF conversions include metric. 31. The maximum and minimum frequencies are therefore 100. The Antenna Near Field & Far Field Distance Calculator will calculate the distance of the three main EM (electromagnetic) fields which surround an antenna, as well as estimate the wavelength of the antenna at a given frequency. 1 meters. The Importance of Antenna Beamwidth in RF Testing. Radio frequency is. Most products are small at 30 MHz but equivalent in size at 300 MHz Above 300 MHz, the wavelength is one meter or shorterThis is the reason why engineers specify the trace width in their designs. a, b, h = Cavity width, length, height in mm/cm/Inch. This calculator determines the effective aperture A e for a given frequency f or wavelength, λ and antenna gain G. The R f (retardation factor) value is the ratio of the solute’s distance travelled to the solvent’s distance travelled. Converts a signal's wavelength to its frequency. RF reflection results in attenuation and interference. 3kHz -11. Formulas and Calculations. Apr 15, 2023. 35*0. This online resonant frequency calculator is divided in to three calculators. These are the initial values we feed to the software or the Yagi antenna calculator. Adding one quarter-wavelength moves you 180 degrees to the right side of the chart, to an open circuit. Here we will briefly review some of the wide variety of methods used to calculate RF electromagnetic fields in MRI with reference to examples in the literature. Methods of RF Field Calculation used in MRI with Consideration of the Sample. There is no simple answer, and a lot of times the physical world is vastly more complex than just a few equations. 4 (for typical FR-4. This is simply not correct. Calculate. 65 figure, then look up the data sheet for the speed of. 5 Ohms Whip Antenna Formula. Wavelength to Frequency. Independent of wavelength – A very strong function of R – A linear function of everything else. This value is usually calculated by discounting any obstacles or reflections that might occur in its path. The microstrip calculator determines the width and length of a microstrip line for a given characteristic impedance (Zo) and electrical length or vice versa. Our waveguides are low loss transmission lines capable of handling high power with high isolation. As you’re probably aware, signals travel on PCB traces with a certain speed. 85419 x 10. To calculate the speed of sound in a medium, follow these steps: Find the sound's wavelength (λ) and frequency (f) in the medium. Enter the values of operating frequency and relative dielectric constant then click on calculate to get the effective dielectric constant and guide wavelength for any slotline. You can use the frequency calculator to determine the frequency if you know the wavelength. The guide wavelength is a function of operating wavelength (or frequency) and the lower cutoff wavelength, and is always longer than the wavelength would be in free-space. Where, D = Antenna dimensions (Can be the length or diameter of the antenna) f = Signal Frequency. Enter the frequency number, by default 27. These files are fairly large, some over 1 meg. (18 Feet = 1/2 wavelength) 27. All About Circuits is the largest online electrical engineering communities in the world with over 700K engineers, who collaborate every day to innovate, design, and create. Formula: Where, λ (Lambda) = Wavelength in meters. This example is for TE 1,0 (the mode with the lowest cutoff frequency) in WR284. Most RF Coaxial Cables have an impedance of 50 ohms or 75 ohms. Yes - Enter the Velocity Factor or, select one. That means on ten mil (254 micron) alumina, the width for fifty ohm microstrip will be about 9. Operating Frequency. Antenna beamwidth determines the expected signal strength given the direction and radiation distance of an antenna. Simons, "Coplanar Waveguide Circuits, Components, and Systems", Wiley. D is the inside diameter of the coax cable shield,. This calculator is designed to calculate the signal wavelength in transverse electromagnetic mode if the dielectric constant or the velocity of propagation is known. When calculating the wavelength, you will always have the speed of light (3. 5 Frequency of RF waves : Frequency of RF waves is the number of EM waves passing a given point in one second. Speed of light = (frequency) * (wavelength), where frequency is in Hz, wavelength in meters, and speed of light = 2. Is all that stitching shown in figure really necessary from an RF point of view? Probably not. This blog post provides the formulas and an Excel spreadsheet for calculating the wavelengths for each 20 MHz channel center frequency in the 2. Comments. Radar Range calculator. 1-866-PASTERNACK (1-866-727-8376) US and Canada only • +1-949-261-1920 International • Email sales@pasternack. Wavelength Calculator. At 0, 1/2 or 180 degrees, and back to 0 degrees of the wave, the current is at 0 or minimum. Scroll to View . Select the Frequency value's Dimension. 39) Capacitor Charge Calculator. This calculator can be used to design a Quarter Wave Ground Plane antenna, with radials. 1/6 λ. Quater-wavelength in meters: 71. Er. Waveguide Calculators. This calculates the wavelength if you know the frequency and wave velocity. I've learned recently that lower frequency radio waves travel farther and have better object penetration than their higher frequency counterparts. It is defined as the depth at which the intensity of the radiation inside the material falls to 1/ e (about 37%) of its original value at (or more properly, just beneath) the surface. This will equal the length of each leg of the antenna. Radio Frequency Power Conversion Calculator . 0x10^8ms^-1) to put into the formula. The wavelength is the distance from one peak (crest) of the wave's electric field to the next, and is inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave. Wavelength (λ): The calculator returns the wavelength in meters. A waveguide with a circular cross-section is known as a circular waveguide. The free space path loss is the loss in signal strength of a signal as it travels through free space. One for feet and the other for meters. 2. TX Power. Height: Height of the substrate. Bureau/Office: Media Skin Depth Calculator. Frequency - Wavelength Conversion Table. 99MHz - 1/100. The radiating element is a quarter wave (λ/4) and the radials are 12% longer. Unequal-split Power Divider Calculator. ε = dielectric constant = ε0 * εr. A Rectangular Waveguide is a conducting cylinder of rectangular cross-section used to guide the propagation of waves. Frequency input (MHz): Wavelength output (Meters) : EXAMPLE of RF. MICROWAVE CALCULATOR Free Mobile App for RF/Microwave Engineers. A larger RCS indicates that an object is more easily detected. Pasternack waveguides are structures for guiding electromagnetic waves, often called a waveguide transmission line. Band name Abbreviation ITU band Frequency and wavelength Example uses; Tremendously low frequency: TLF < 3 Hz > 100,000 km: Natural and man-made electromagnetic noiselength = wavelength(in cable) * (phase shift in degrees/360), where the wavelength(in cable) = 0. c is the speed of light 299,792,458 m⋅s −1,. This can be set to zero, but the calculated loss will not include conductor losses. This website was last updated. One wavelength equals the speed of light divided by the frequency. Canadian Radio Frequency Allocations. 185 megahertz is channel 19, the highway channel, of the Citizens Band Radio Service. EXAMPLE#1 (Doppler frequency calculation for moving reflector case): Speed of Wave source (m/sec) = 1000 , Operating Frequency (MHz) = 3000(i. S. This frequency. where: E is the energy of the photon. This can be easily calculated by hand or by using an online calculator. The link budget is an important value that enables engineers to design systems based on the required sensitivity of a receiver at a. Disclaimer: This calculator has been tested and is believed to be accurate to 6 significant figures. m,n,p = Mode number (should not be 0) If a<b<h then the lowest response frequency is c/2a. Wavelength effects are more prominent at high frequencies. f = c / λ = wave speed c (m/s) / wavelength λ (m). If you have no particular preference within a given ham radio band, then simply enter its center frequency (i. m. Wavelength to Frequency Calculator. Radar cross-section ), denoted σ, also called , is a measure of how detectable an object is by . mcalculator - android-design. e. - Reflection Attenuator Calculator. When the dimension of an opening in an EMI shield is equal to one-half the wavelength of interference, then the shield radiates EMI and becomes useless. Radio Frequency Engineering Calculator. 10 -3. Maximum Unambiguous Range Calculator. 3048 to convert them to meters. Below the cutoff frequency, power flow will be reduced. 6127a<λ<3. This is a true unbalanced antenna, with a feed impedance of around 50Ω and therefore a great. 95. 05 m, multiply by 39 and you have 80 inches. Then, multiply the values of L and l by 0. The Television. e. Where C is the speed of light and is 3 x 10^8 meter/second. All Conversion Calculators. The formula used in the Far-Field Calculator is: d F = λ 2 ⋅ D 2 Example. 4 GHz. The radiating element is a quarter wave (λ/4) and the radials are 12% longer. , the power level of 0dBm represents 1milliwatt). Thus, for a Faraday cage to prevent this noise. 8 × 10 − 7 m. The modern cellular networks use the portion of the radio frequency spectrum from 800 MHz to 1900 MHz (wavelength from 3. Choose the velocity of the wave. RF Calculator for Calculation / Conversion of Common RF Terms RF calculators and converters. With this calculator you can calculate RF parameters in a radar range depending on: Frequency. However, this can be automatically converted. The "Standard Definitions of Terms for. For antennas shorter than half of the wavelength of the radiation they emit (i. ε 0 = 8. Values for L and C will be calculated for the four topologies shown. greater or less than 60 dB, and whether the frequency is greater or less than 100 MHz. f 2 = Upper operational frequency in GHz. This is roughly between the upper limit of audio frequencies and the lower limit of infrared frequencies. The Friis transmission equation gives the power received by an antenna from another antenna that is transmitting a known amount of power at a distance under ideal conditions. Microstrip line is a widely used transmission line and for the appropriate transmission its characteristic impedance has to be calculated while using it in RF design & circuits. Please visit RFconnector. Limitations and features of antenna calculations. This will also provide the time delay the cable provides for a signal and also the capacitance and inductance per. All Conversion Calculators. They hold the advantage over coaxial cable in terms of ease of manufacturing because of the absence of an inner conductor and shielding. Calculator 1: This calculates the Resonant Frequency of the LC tank circuit by entering the inductance and capacitance values. Pasternack's RF Skin Depth Calculator are measurement calculation tools that allow you to input custom values, or choose from a list of commonly used material. Equation $$lambda = frac{c}{f sqrt{epsilon_{R}}}$$ or $$lambda = v_{p}frac{c}{f}$$ Where: $$lambda$$ = signal. To achieve a matching impedance of 50 Ohm, the ground plane elements are bent down at an angle of 45 degrees and no matching stubs or balans are needed. The wavelength is the distance between repeating units of a wave pattern. Waveguide Calculator (Rectangular) Pasternack's Waveguide Calculator provides the cutoff frequency, operating frequency range and closest waveguide size for a rectangular waveguide based on the custom inputted broad wall width. Gain. This is a required field. 65wavelength(in air) If you want more accuracy than that approximate 0. The ITU Radio Frequency to Wavelength conversion tool allows you to enter a frequency from 8. Applies to Transverse ElectroMagnetic propagation. In addition, because of the rain drop's shape and its relative size compared to the RF signal. 65 figure, then look up the data sheet for the speed of signals in your specific type of cable. It will also show you what the primary ITU allocation is for that frequency by selecting your desired region in the field below. d = Diameter of the aperture in cm/inch/mm/metre. When electromagnetic radiation is incident on the. 4mm PCB for a trace width of 0. 4 Link Loss and Path Loss. This calculator is designed to calculate the wavelength of any frequency signal. 14. For an array of apertures the complete formula is: SEdB=K log10 λ/2 L - 20 log n L. This tool will also compute the resistance of the microstrip, the voltage drop, and the power. k=frac {2pi} {lambda}=frac {2pi f} {v} k = λ2π. - Tee Attenuator Calculator. To calculate the wavelength of a periodic oscillating motion, given the frequency, you first need to know the speed of the wave. The Wavelength Calculator provides a general purpose utility for determining the Free Space Wavelength, Characteristic Impedance, and Velocity of Light for a plane wave at a user defined frequency ( f) in a Region that is Uniformly Filled with a dielectric material that is also defined by the user by entering the Relative Permittivity and. For Example WR-650 means a waveguide whose cross section width is 6500 mils. 55). Frequency wavelength in millimeters: Download various frequency allocation charts. shielding up to 40 GHz would require vent holes smaller than. RF Calculator for Calculation / Conversion of Common RF Terms RF calculators and converters. It is the output power when. dBm stands for decibel-milliwatts; is a dimensionless unit used to define/measure signal strength (power level), with reference to 1 milliwatt. f = v/lambda f = v/λ. Watt To dBm Calculator. This general RF calculator provides path loss, VSWR and wavelength as well as conversions between many common measurements used in the wireless industry. The Parabolic Reflector Antenna Calculator on everything RF is an online tool that assists engineers and designers in calculating the critical parameters of a parabolic reflector antenna. Frequency Calculator. Disclaimer: This calculator has been tested and is believed to be accurate to 6 significant figures. This general RF calculator provides path loss, VSWR and wavelength as well as conversions between many common measurements used in the wireless industry. PIM. Get the wavelength calculator available online only at Elite RF. Note: Units do not matter for this calculation as long as they are consistent. Standing waves are waves of voltage and current which do not propagate (i. The frequency of a radio wave is calculated by dividing the velocity of the radio wave (speed of light, c =299 792 458 m/s) by wavelength (λ). For example, if you wish to input "25000000", just type "25M" instead. The substrate parameters (ε r and h) and the frequency of interest are required. . Power Combiners/RF Systems; RF Switches; TV Combiners; TV Diplexers; TV Filters. The formula was derived by Herald T. To maximize signal strength between the transmitter and receiver, the antenna installer needs to keep the obstruction-free direct transmission. 8 pF, Inductance = -17. f 1 = Lower operational frequency in GHz. Frequency to Wavelength Calculator. There are many other factors that will come in to play when doing this in the real world. EXAMPLE of Whip Antenna Calculator: INPUTS : Frequency = 900 MHz, Length = 12 inches, Diameter = 0. These are considered to be standardized impedance values with cables readily available. 437 GHz (802. The Antenna CalculatorforHalf-Wave Dipoles. . The gigahertz [GHz] to wavelength in nanometres [nm] conversion table and conversion steps are also listed. RF wavelength calculations can be made quite simple with two basic formulas. c = Speed of Light (299,792,458 m/s) f = Frequency. This calculator utilises the diameter of the reflector and the operating frequency to calculate critical antenna characteristics such as gain, HPBW, and. Dipole. Result. Frequency: Frequency at which the stripline is analyzed or. 41) Voltage Divider Calculator. c is the speed of light 299,792,458 m⋅s −1,. Using the calculator, we see that the skin depth. 4. Frequency input (MHz): Wavelength output (Meters) : EXAMPLE of RF Wavelength calculator: INPUT: Frequency = 850 MHz. Waves are signals that travel through air, water, light, and even. Circular Waveguide Calculator will calculate the cutoff frequency for the device from its radius. A rectangular waveguide is commonly used for the transport of radio frequency signals. It also determines the wavelength and the length adjustment factor k. RF calculations and conversions include metric-standard, link. VSWR, Return Loss and Reflection Coefficient Calculators. εr (relative permittivity) This is a required field. For example, 100 ppm of 100 MHz represents a variation in frequency of 10 kHz. Also note that the gain equation is optimized for small angles - see derivation of wavelength portion of equation [7]. Symbols. A node is a point on a standing wave of minimum amplitude. 40) Led Resistor Calculator. Calculate: Plug the gathered values into the formula to calculate the far-field distance. It will also show you what the primary ITU allocation is for that frequency by selecting your desired region in the field below. 7,506. Where: Gain (dB) = Gain of the conical horn antenna in dB (i. A television station broadcast Radio Frequency (RF) channel is allocated 6 MHz of bandwidth for over-the-air transmission in part of the VHF or UHF Radio Frequency Band. Its. Wavelength calculator 46) L-Network Matching Calculator 47) LCR Parallel - Series Conversion Calculator 48) PI. 7 mA Line of 230 meter 580 meter Sight Range Sensitivity -94 dBm -93. Note that antennas are very rarely constructed according to the calculated theoretical dimensions and are always tuned. , n) is: Where, R = Radius of the Fresnel Zone in m/ft. This online plane wave calculator calculates the phase velocity Vp (m/s), wavelength λ (meter (s)), and wave impedance (Ω) of the plane wave by entering the value of relative permittivity (εr), relative permeability (μr) of the medium, and frequency (MHz/GHz). Band name Abbreviation ITU band Frequency and wavelength Example uses; Tremendously low frequency: TLF < 3 Hz > 100,000 km: Natural and man-made electromagnetic noise length = wavelength(in cable) * (phase shift in degrees/360), where the wavelength(in cable) = 0. nl - Free - Mobile App for Android. 75, Radiation Resistance = 347. 19. The formulae to calculate the dipole antenna and leg length are: L = 468 / f, l = L /2, where: L - Length of the dipole antenna in feet; l - Length of each arm of the dipole in feet; and. Items (3), (4), and (5) above represent RF or power losses which can be measured. 98 m. r = 7. Cut-off Frequency (fc) GHz. Frequency ‹―› Wavelength Calculator. It was developed to increase the speed and capacity of mobile communication networks using DSP (digital signal processing) techniques and modulations. Wavelength to Frequency Calculator. As an RF signal propagates away from a transmitter the power density reduces conserving the power in the EM wave. Noise Figure to Noise Temperature Converter. 455 kg/lb You can also convert Type B units into Type A by dividing the amount of Type B units by the conversion factor from Type A to Type B:Conversion Calculator: ppm to Hz. Take the square root of the value from step 2. MHz. The equation for maximum spacing is a function of wavelength of operation and maximum look angle: Thus for a 30 degree look angle, dmax is (2/3)xlambda, while for a 60 degree look angle, dmax is 0.